PostgreSQL comes with a builtin imperative programming language called PL/pgSQL. I used to think this language was scary because it has a bit more adornment than your usual language does. But looking deeper, it's actually reasonably pleasant to program in.
In this post we'll get familiar with it by working with strings, arrays and recursive functions. We'll top it all off by building a parser for a subset of JSON (no nested objects, no arrays, no unicode, no decimals).
The goal here is not production-quality code (an amazing JSON library is already built into PostgreSQL) but simply to get more familiar with the PL/pgSQL language.
All code for this post is available on Github.
Creating functions
Functions are declared like tables. Here's a very simple one that returns the length of a string:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION slength(s text) RETURNS int AS $$
BEGIN
RETURN length(s);
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
It's not a very useful function because length already exists but the point is to see a basic custom function.
All statements in PL/pgSQL must end in a statement. Arguments do not have to be named. If they are not named they get default names of $1 to $N.
Named/unnamed arguments
Here's how the function could be written without named arguments:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION slength(text) RETURNS int AS $$
BEGIN
RETURN length($1);
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
Out declarations
PL/pgSQL also allows you to declare which variables will be returned in the function argument list. They call it OUT parameters but as far as I can tell it is not like OUT parameters in C# where you are modifying the value of a variable in an external scope.
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION slength(s text, OUT i int) RETURNS int AS $$
BEGIN
i = length(s);
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
This is still equivalent to the first function and is basically a shortcut for:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION slength(s text) RETURNS int AS $$
DECLARE
i int;
BEGIN
i = length(s);
RETURN i;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
Whether you declare OUT or not you still must include RETURNS <type> in the function signature otherwise even if you call RETURN in the body, the result will just be ignored.
Don't worry about case sensitivity too much. It's really only important, as in typical SQL, for mixed-case table and column names. But we won't be dealing with that situation in this article focused on programming PL/pgSQL.
Testing it out
Once the function is created, you can call it like SELECT slength('foo');. So here's a helper script to load a SQL file and run a command:
$ cat ./test.sh
sudo -u postgres psql -c "$(printf "%s;\n%s" "$(cat $1)" "$2")"
$ chmod +x ./test.sh
After storing the above slength code in slength.sql we can run a test:
$ ./test.sh ./slength.sql "SELECT slength('foo')"
slength
---------
3
(1 row)
Easy!
Numbers and recursion
Ok now that we've got the basics of function definition down and a way to test the code, let's write a fibonacci program.
$ cat ./fib.sql
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION fib(i int) RETURNS int AS $$
BEGIN
IF i = 0 OR i = 1 THEN
RETURN i;
END IF;
RETURN fib(i - 1) + fib(i - 2);
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
Everything in the if test is normal SQL WHERE clause syntax. This makes it very easy for folks familiar with SQL to pick up conditionals in PL/pgSQL.
And there's no special syntax to allow function recursion. Nice!
Run and test this function:
$ ./test.sh ./fib.sql "SELECT fib(10)"
fib
-----
55
(1 row)
Getting the hang of it?
Strings and arrays
You may have noticed that length used in slength is a builtin PostgreSQL function for dealing with strings. All builtin functions in PostgreSQL can be used in PL/pgSQL.
In order to get familiar with using arrays in PL/pgSQL let's write a string_to_array function.
$ cat ./string_to_array.sql
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION string_to_array(s text) RETURNS char[] AS $$
DECLARE
a char[];
BEGIN
WHILE COALESCE(array_length(a, 1), 0) < length(s) LOOP
a[COALESCE(array_length(a, 1), 0) + 1] = substr(s, COALESCE(array_length(a, 1), 0) + 1, 1);
END LOOP;
RETURN a;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
This is one way to do it by modify array values directly by index. We need to coalesce because calling array_length on an empty array returns NULL.
Another way to do this is by calling the builtin function array_append.
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION string_to_array(s text) RETURNS char[] AS $$
DECLARE
a char[];
BEGIN
WHILE COALESCE(array_length(a, 1), 0) < length(s) LOOP
a = array_append(a, substr(s, COALESCE(array_length(a, 1), 0) + 1, 1)::char);
END LOOP;
RETURN a;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
We can test and run both:
$ ./test.sh ./string_to_array.sql "SELECT string_to_array('foo')"
string_to_array
-----------------
{f,o,o}
(1 row)
$ ./test.sh ./string_to_array2.sql "SELECT string_to_array('foo')"
string_to_array
-----------------
{f,o,o}
(1 row)
Of course the builtin alternative might be SELECT regexp_split_to_array('foo') but we need the practice.
Custom compound types
If we're going to lex and parse JSON, we're going to want to return an array of tokens from the lexer. A token will need to contain the type (e.g. number, string, syntax) and the string value of the token (e.g. 1, {, my great key).
PostgreSQL allows us to create compound types that we can then use as the base of an array:
DROP TYPE IF EXISTS json_token CASCADE;
CREATE TYPE json_token AS (
kind text,
value text
);
We need to add CASCADE here because functions will have this type in their signature and it otherwise makes PostgreSQL unhappy to delete the type used in a function before deleting the function.
We can create literals of this type like SELECT ('number', '12')::json_token).
Now we're ready to build out the lexer.
Lexing
The lexers job is to clump together groups of characters into tokens.
I'm going to describe this function in literate code.
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION json_lex(j text, OUT ts json_token[]) RETURNS json_token[] AS $$
This function takes a string in and returns an array of json tokens.
DECLARE
i int = 1; -- Index in loop
c text; -- Current character in loop
token text; -- Current accumulated characters
We need to declare all variables up front.
BEGIN
WHILE i < length(j) + 1 LOOP
c = substr(j, i, 1);
token = '';
The main loop just looks at all characters.
-- Handle syntax characters
IF c = '{' OR c = '}' OR c = ',' OR c = ':' THEN
ts = array_append(ts, ('syntax', c)::json_token);
i = i + 1;
CONTINUE;
END IF;
First we look if the character is a syntax character. If it is we append it to the array of tokens, increment the index, and go back to the start of the main loop.
-- Handle whitespace
IF regexp_replace(c, '^\s+', '') = '' THEN
i = i + 1;
CONTINUE;
END IF;
Then we check for whitespace characters. If replacing all whitespace characters returns an empty string then we know it's whitespace. We could also have done something like IF c = ' ' OR c = '\n' ... THEN instead.
Same as before though if we find whitespace characters we move on (don't accumulate them) and restart the main loop.
-- Handle strings
IF c = '"' THEN
i = i + 1;
c = substr(j, i, 1);
WHILE c <> '"' LOOP
token = token || c;
i = i + 1;
c = substr(j, i, 1);
END LOOP;
i = i + 1;
ts = array_append(ts, ('string', token)::json_token);
CONTINUE;
END IF;
Next we loop through any strings we find and accumulate them as tokens before restarting the main loop.
-- Handle numbers
WHILE c ~ '^[0-9]+$' LOOP
token = token || c;
i = i + 1;
c = substr(j, i, 1);
END LOOP;
IF length(token) > 0 THEN
ts = array_append(ts, ('number', token)::json_token);
CONTINUE;
END IF;
Then we look for integers.
RAISE EXCEPTION 'Unknown character: %, at index: %; already found: %.', c, i, ts;
END LOOP;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
Lastly if none of those lexing handlers match, we give up! Then the loop is done and the function is too.
There's no RETURN statement because we already declared an OUT variable.
If we test and run this now:
./test.sh ./json.sql "SELECT json_lex('{\"flubberty\": 12, \"nice\": \"a\"}')"
json_lex
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
{"(syntax,{)","(string,flubberty)","(syntax,:)","(number,12)","(syntax,\",\")","(string,nice)","(syntax,:)","(string,a)","(syntax,})"}
(1 row)
It's messy but it worked! Now on to parsing.
Parsing
Our parser will only accept JSON objects. JSON objects will be defined as an array of key-value pairs. Custom types make this nice again.
DROP TYPE IF EXISTS json_key_value CASCADE;
CREATE TYPE json_key_value AS (
k text,
v text
);
One thing PostgreSQL does not make nice is sum types or parametric types. But even if the value here is stored as text it can be easily cast to a number by the user. And again, we're not going to support nested objects/arrays. But using hstore for key-values might be the better alternative if we wanted to build a real JSON parser.
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION json_parse(ts json_token[], i int) RETURNS json_key_value[] AS $$
DECLARE
t json_token; -- Current token in tokens loop
kvs json_key_value[];
k text;
BEGIN
t = ts[i];
IF t.kind <> 'syntax' OR t.value <> '{' THEN
RAISE EXCEPTION 'Invalid JSON, must be an object, got: %.', t;
END IF;
i = i + 1;
t = ts[i];
First up in the parser is variable declarations and validating that this list of tokens represents a JSON object.
WHILE t.kind <> 'syntax' OR t.value <> '}' LOOP
IF array_length(kvs, 1) > 0 THEN
IF t.kind <> 'syntax' OR t.value <> ',' THEN
RAISE EXCEPTION 'JSON key-value pair must be followed by a comma or closing brace, got: %.', t;
END IF;
i = i + 1;
t = ts[i];
END IF;
Then we loop to find each key-value pair. If one has already been found, we need to find a comma before the next pair.
IF t.kind <> 'string' THEN
RAISE EXCEPTION 'JSON object must start with string key, got: %.', t;
END IF;
k = t.value;
i = i + 1;
t = ts[i];
IF t.kind <> 'syntax' OR t.value <> ':' THEN
RAISE EXCEPTION 'JSON object must start with string key followed by colon, got: %.', t;
END IF;
i = i + 1;
t = ts[i];
IF t.kind = 'number' OR t.kind = 'string' THEN
kvs = array_append(kvs, (k, t)::json_key_value);
i = i + 1;
t = ts[i];
CONTINUE;
END IF;
RAISE EXCEPTION 'Invalid key-value pair syntax, got: %.', t;
END LOOP;
RETURN kvs;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
Then we just look for the key, colon, value syntax and fail if we don't see it. And that's it! Very simple when not dealing with arrays and nested objects.
Helpers
Lastly it would just be nice to have a single function that calls lex and parse:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION json_from_string(s text) RETURNS json_key_value[] AS $$
BEGIN
RETURN json_parse(json_lex(s), 1);
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
And another function to look up a value in a parsed object by key:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION json_get(kvs json_key_value[], key text) RETURNS text AS $$
DECLARE
kv json_key_value;
BEGIN
FOREACH kv IN ARRAY kvs LOOP
IF kv.k = key THEN RETURN (kv.v::json_token).value; END IF;
END LOOP;
RAISE EXCEPTION 'Key not found.';
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
And we're all set!
Testing
Let's try some bad syntax (missing a comma between pairs):
./test.sh ./json.sql "SELECT json_get(json_from_string('{\"flubberty\": 12 \"nice\": \"a\"}'), 'ipo')"
ERROR: JSON key-value pair must be followed by a comma or closing brace, got: (string,nice).
CONTEXT: PL/pgSQL function json_parse(json_token[],integer) line 18 at RAISE
PL/pgSQL function json_from_string(text) line 3 at RETURN
Sweet, it fails correctly.
Now correct syntax but missing key:
./test.sh ./json.sql "SELECT json_get(json_from_string('{\"flubberty\": 12, \"nice\": \"a\"}'), 'ipo')"
ERROR: Key not found.
CONTEXT: PL/pgSQL function json_get(json_key_value[],text) line 9 at RAISE
And finally, correct syntax and existing key:
./test.sh ./json.sql "SELECT json_get(json_from_string('{\"flubberty\": 12, \"nice\": \"a\"}'), 'flubberty')"
json_get
----------
12
(1 row)
Huzzah! Now hopefully PL/pgSQL is a little less scary to you, whether or not you decide to use it.
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